African Leopard

Panthera pardus pardus

General Description

Scientific Name: Panthera pardus pardus

Subspecies: 0 Subspecies

Status: Vulnerable (Decreasing)

Population Estimate: 700,000 (overestimate)

Population in Assessed Areas: 15-50

Diet: Obligate Carnivore

Male Size: 37-96 Kgs

Female Size: 24-37 Kgs

Trophy Size: N/a

Generation Length: 7.42 years

Reproductive Season: Year Round

Time of Activity: Diurnal/semi-nocturnal

Description: The African leopard exhibits great variation in coat color, depending on location and habitat. Coat colour varies from pale yellow to deep gold or tawny, and sometimes black, and is patterned with black rosettes while the head, lower limbs and belly are spotted with solid black. Male leopards are substaintially larger, averaging 58 kg (128 lb) with 90 kg (200 lb) being the maximum weight attained by a male. Females weigh about 37.5 kg (83 lb) on average.

The African leopard is sexually dimorphic; males are larger and heavier than females. Between 1996 and 2000, 11 adult leopards were radio-collared on Namibian farmlands. Males weighed 37.5 to 52.3 kg (83 to 115 lb) only, and females 24 to 33.5 kg (53 to 74 lb).[15] The heaviest known leopard weighed about 96 kg (212 lb), and was recorded in South West Africa.. An Algerian leopard killed in 1913 was reported to have measured approximately 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m), before being skinned. Leopards inhabiting the mountains of the Cape Provinces appear smaller and less heavy than leopards further north. Leopards in Somalia and Ethiopia are also said to be smaller.

The skull of a West African leopard specimen measured 11.25 in (286 mm) in basal length, and 7.125 in (181.0 mm) in breadth, and weighed 1 lb 12 oz (0.79 kg). To compare, that of an Indian leopard measured 11.2 in (280 mm) in basal length, and 7.9 in (20 cm) in breadth, and weighed 2 lb 4 oz (1.0 kg)

Ecology: The leopard has an exceptional ability to adapt to prey availability. It takes small prey where large ungulates are less common. Known prey ranges from dung beetles to adult elands. In sub-Saharan Africa, at least 92 prey species have been documented in leopard scat, including rodents, birds, small and large antelopes, hyraxes, hares, and arthropods. Leopards generally focus their hunting activity on locally abundant medium-sized ungulates in the 20 to 80 kg (44 to 176 lb) range, while opportunistically taking other prey. Average intervals between ungulate kills range from seven to 12–13 days. Leopards often hide large kills in trees, a behavior for which great strength is required. There have been several observations of leopards hoisting carcasses of young giraffes, estimated to weigh up to 125 kg (276 lb), (2–3 x the leopards weight), up to 5.7 m (19 ft) into trees.

In Serengeti National Park, leopards were radio-collared for the first time in the early 1970s. Their hunting at night was difficult to watch; the best time for observing them was after dawn. Of their 64 day hunts, only 3 were successful. In this woodland area, they preyed mostly on Impalas, both adult and young, and caught some Thomson's gazelles in the dry season. Occasionally, they successfully hunted warthogs, dik-diks, reedbucks, duikers, steenboks, blue wildebeest and topi calves, jackals, Cape hares, guineafowl and starlings. They were less successful in hunting plains zebras, Coke's hartebeests, giraffes, mongooses, genets, hyraxes and small birds. Scavenging from the carcasses of large animals made up a small proportion of their food. In the tropical rainforests of Central Africa, their diet consists of duikers and primates. Some individual leopards have shown a strong preference for pangolins and porcupines.

In North Africa, the leopard preys on Barbary macaque .Analysis of leopard scat in Taï National Park revealed that primates are primary leopard prey during the day. In Gabon's Lope National Park, the most important prey species was found to be the red river hog, forest buffaloes, and greater cane rats, comprised 13% each of the consumed biomass.

In the Central African Republic's, a leopard reportedly attacked and pursued a large western lowland gorilla, but did not catch it. Gorilla parts found in leopard scat indicates that the leopard either scavenged on gorilla remains or killed it. African leopards were observed preying on adult eastern gorillas in the Kisoro area near Uganda's borders with Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Habitats are almost unlimited, ranging from wet tropical forest to bushveld, thickets,

savannah, grassland, highveld, marshland, fynbos, Karoo shrubland and semi-arid deserts. Leopards are found on plains, on mountains into the snowline and on beaches. The only habitat totally avoided is sandy desert. The suitability of a habitat is not determined by its topography, but by the availability and abundance of prey and the accessibility of terrain suitable for stalking and hunting it. Camouflage such as tall grass, bushes and rocks are needed for successful kills. Open, short grass plains are less suitable and are defined as marginal habitat. Leopards tend to favor rocky koppies and hills, kloofs and riverine areas. They occur at an annual rainfall of less than 100 mm to over 2 000 mm, are independent of surface drinking water and can survive in arid environments

Behavior: Leopards are primarily nocturnal and most kills are at night. They hunt alone; even a female with sub-adult young abandons them when hunting. The prey is stalked by crawling close to a distance of around 4-7 m. They then leaps forward onto the animal, aiming for the neck area but usually landing on the shoulders. The momentum of the leap generally knocks the prey off its feet and the cat rolls over it quickly and attempts to rip out its throat. Smaller antelope are killed by a bite to the back of the skull. Leopards do not chase prey and only 20% of stalking attempts are successful. Once killed, the carcass is protected from scavengers and other predators by dragging it into thicket, or hoisted up into a tree to a split in the trunk; a carcass up to twice the cat’s mass can be lifted. A leopard will return repeatedly to the hidden carcass until all the remains are eaten.

Hunting success relies mainly on an extremely well developed sense of sight and hearing while scent is of little importance. During hot daylight hours leopards rest in dense cover, between rocks, caves, old aardvark burrows or high up on the branch of a large tree. In early mornings they tend to lie and view their surroundings from sunny spots on rocks or river banks. On overcast, cool days leopards may move around in daylight. They are excellent swimmers and do not hesitate to enter water. One leopard was seen crossing 900 m of open water between islands on Lake Kariba.

Both males and females have their individual home ranges that are defended against intruders of both sexes. A female will only tolerate the presence of a male in her territory during the mating period. Studies indicate that adjacent home ranges overlap by up to 46%, but that individuals keep a spatial distance between each other and avoid entering the overlap simultaneously. The size of the home range varies with habitat type, environment and composition of prey. The size is not static, but changes in relation to changes in climate and the related change of potential food resources. Home ranges vary from 1 400 ha for females and 2 500 ha for males in bushveld and savannah areas, to 49 000 ha in the mountains of the Western Cape and 290 000 ha in the Kalahari desert. The home range of a male may overlap those of 2-4 females. A leopard passes through its entire home range approximately once every six days.

Leopards are solitary animals except when they pair during mating or when a female is

accompanied by her cubs. The mating pair splits soon after mating. The cubs leave the

mother shortly before the birth of the next litter at an age of 12-18 months and become

solitary. They generally become nomads for 6-12 months and then establish a home

range. Males may wander a distance of up to 100 km before settling. Due to their solitary nature, even an adult leopard is vulnerable to intimidation by gregarious or social predators such as African lions, spotted hyaena , African wild dog , wolves and vultures

Reproduction: An adult alpha male can identify a female in oestrus on detecting her scent marks or hearing her vocalization over a distance of several kilometres. A female in oestrus will often move beyond her home range in search of a mate. There is no specific breeding or birth season as mating occurs at any time of the year. A mating pair displays a playful behavior during courtship, chasing each other in circles. Copulation is of short duration and is repeated several times within 1-2 days. The majority of copulations are

unsuccessful. Gestation varies from 90-106 days. Leopards gain sexual maturity after 2 years and social maturity at first mating at 3-4 years.

Two to three cubs are born with closed eyes in a den that is either hidden between rocks, in a cave, a deserted burrow or in thicket vegetation. The eyes of the young only open at 8-10 days. Alpha males do not assist in the raising of the infants as they retreat to their own territory soon after mating. The mother abandons the litter for periods of up to 6 days while she is hunting. During this time the young are extremely vulnerable to predation, especially by jackal, caracal and python. The mother translocates the litter to a new den by carrying them in her mouth but when they are older the cubs follow her to the new hiding place. After the cubs are weaned at three months they begin to accompany their mother on hunting expeditions but only begin to hunt effectively after ten months. They become independent at 12-18 months and leave the litter to become solitary. The maximum live expectancy is 12 years

Conservation Analysis

Map of Leopard Current Distribution

Current & Historic range: African Leopard distribution in North Africa has been restricted by 97% of their former range with only remnant, isolated populations remaining. An adult male Leopard was killed in the Elba region of southeastern Egypt in retaliation for livestock depredation, though evidence of a breeding population is still uncertain. Camera-trapping efforts have failed to capture Leopards in the Sinai since 1995. The presence of Leopards was confirmed in the Ahaggar Mountains of Algeria from the genetic testing of one scat sample in 2005 but no presence has been confirmed since. Leopards are thought to be extirpated from Morocco.

Leopard distribution in West Africa has been dramatically reduced, likely due to habitat fragmentation, but also because rigorous survey efforts that have confirmed presence and likely absence across the region. Leopards have been confirmed in Niger along the southwestern border with Benin and Burkina Faso but previous reports in Air and Tenere National Reserves are unconfirmed. Leopards are generally restricted to a few protected areas from Senegal in the west to Nigeria in the east. Leopards have been reported in the south of Senegal including Parc National de Niokolo-Koba. In Sierra Leone, there are small remnant populations near Outamba Kilimi National Park and Gola National Forest as well as the eastern boundary with Guinea/ Liberia. Leopard populations in Liberia have been recorded in Lofa-Mano National Park in the west and Sapo National Park in the east. In Ghana, Leopards are found along the boundary with Côte d’Ivoire and Mole National Park in the north and west. In Benin, Leopards are found along the northern boundary. Leopards are nearly absent from Nigeria.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Leopard range has been greatly reduced in areas of high increased presence and areas of easy to access that are open to illegal hunting. In Cameroon, Leopards are found in the northern and southern portions of the country. In Gabon, Leopards are found throughout the country with small absent pockets in the southeast and southwest. In the Central African Republic (CAR) Leopards are found in the southwest, central and eastern portions of the country. Leopards are found throughout South Sudan with the exception of the Sudd wetland.

The range of Leopards in East Africa has been reduced, in particular in Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia and central Tanzania. There are possible remnant populations in Djibouti, Eritrea, and North Sudan. They are nearly absent from Somalia. Leopards are found throughout southern Ethiopia, parts of Uganda and the west, central and southern portions of Kenya. In Tanzania, Leopards are found throughout the Serengeti-Ngorogoro Crater system and to the south and west. It is thought that Leopards are absent from the southeastern boundary of Lake Victoria to Central Tanzania.

Southern Africa: Southern Africa likely has the healthiest Leopard populations of their entire range. It is generally thought that Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique have declining but healthy Leopard populations outside of human dominated areas. In Namibia, Leopards inhabit most of the country with the exception of the highly populated northern region, the arid southeast farmlands and the desert coast. Botswana has a continuous Leopard population in the North and West. In South Africa, Leopards are found along the boundaries with Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique with dense populations located in the Limpopo region. Leopards are also located in the Cape provinces of South Africa

African Leopard Population Data

Country	Population Estimate	Population Status	Last Assessed
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Uganda
Tanzania
South Sudan
Rwanda
Nigeria
Mozambique
Malawi
Kenya
Gabon
Equatorial Guinea
Democratic Republic of Congo
Central African Republic
Cameroon
Angola
South Africa

*Further data on Southern African Lion populations and harvest numbers outside of South Africa and Namibia are largely incomplete, and hence it has not been evaluated by us. It is our goal to expand into other African Nations soon, so please do be patient with us.

Current & Historic Populations: There are few reliable data on changes in the Leopard status (distribution or abundance) throughout Africa over the last three generations, although there is compelling evidence that subpopulations have likely declined considerably. Robust longitudinal data on 47 Lion subpopulations—a sympatric large carnivore—demonstrated a 42% decline in abundance across populations in the last three generations (22.3 yrs). Lion population trends decreased in West, Central and East Africa, and increased in Southern Africa. Most of the factors driving Lion population declines (e.g., habitat loss/fragmentation, retaliatory killing, and poorly managed trophy hunting) likely affect Leopards. Indeed, pressure on Leopard populations is likely greater as a larger proportion of their range extends beyond protected areas. The increase in Lion populations in southern Africa was primarily due to the reintroduction of >800 lions to small, protected reserves in South Africa. Similar reintroductions were not undertaken for Leopards. Fencing of protected areas was proposed as another significant factor contributing to the increase in Lion numbers in southern Africa. In contrast, fences are far less effective at reducing detrimental edge effects of ‘protected' Leopard populations (leopards can jump most fences) and again, a far greater proportion of Leopard range falls outside protected areas.

One main factor for Leopard declines in Africa are prey declines. Leopard densities across Africa is known to track the biomass of their principle prey species, medium and large-sized wild herbivores such as impala or reedbuck. The latter are increasingly under threat from the expanding bushmeat trade, leading to considerable declines in prey populations across the leopards range. Time series data from 1970 to 2005 on the main Leopard prey species in 78 protected areas in West, East and Southern Africa, revealed a 59% average decline in population abundance across the three regions. While ungulate and other large mammal populations increased by 24% in southern Africa, they declined by 52% in East Africa and by 85% in West Africa (Craigie et al. 2010). Considering the Leopard’s dependence on wild prey species within its African range, concomitant Leopard declines in the same order of magnitude (>50%) in West and East Africa can be inferred for the same time frame.

Another main driver of range loss and population decline of Leopards in Africa is habitat loss. Leopards have limited levels of ecological resilience to human-caused habitat fragmentation in Africa, and as a result are more restricted to conservation areas. Although male leopards can successfully traverse fragmented and suboptimal habitat, in general Leopards in Africa require large contiguous habitats with low human impacts to reproduce successfully. Meanwhile, from 1990 to 2020, the human population in Africa increased by 2.57 percent annually (from 0.638 billion to 1.494 billion), which in conjunction with a 57% increase in agriculture areas (from just over 200 million ha to almost 340 million ha) from 1975 - 2000 and a 21% decrease in natural vegetation in the region, likely have negatively impacted the leopard populations. These increases in human population and habitat fragmentation were not accounted for in the previous assessment. As a subspecies P. p. pardus qualifies as Vulnerable due to suspected population declines.

Threats to Species Survival: The primary threats to Leopards are anthropogenic. Habitat fragmentation, reduced prey base and conflict with livestock and game farming, poaching and illegal trade have reduced Leopard populations throughout most of their range. The conversion of forest habitats and savanna systems to agriculture, livestock farming and urban sprawl have significantly reduced Leopard range. Though exceptions exist, this conversion typically leads to the depletion of natural prey species through poaching thereby reducing the natural prey base in these areas. Where livestock and game farms have been created, Leopards may feed on these commercially valuable prey causing conflicts with farmers. These farmers may be intolerant to Leopard conflict and kill the Leopards for real or perceived threats to their lives and livelihoods.

Recommended Conservation Actions:

Further resource and manage protected areas where leopards still exits exist.
Increase the access to funding and the effectiveness of anti-poaching techniques across Southern Africa, to make leopard protection as affordable as possible.
Encourage the implementation of economic incentives that allow landowners to profit off the presence of healthy leopard populations, whether that be through hunting or ecotourism.
Investigate how trophy hunting can be implemented without having negative impacts on leopard populations, and help implement this over a large part of their range.
Improve survey methods to get accurate population data, such as implementing long-term monitoring programs.

Economic & Cultural Analysis

Ecotourism Value: Extremely High

Hunting Value: Extremely High

Meat Value: Low - Moderate

Average Trophy Value: $5,000 - $15,000 USD

Meat Yield per Animal: 50-100 kg

Economic Value/Impacts: The African leopard presents considerable value to both the ecotourism and hunting industries across their range, as well as to rural and hunter-gatherer peoples that have likely hunted and lived alongside this species for thousands of years.

Leopards,, along with lions and elephants, are one of the most iconic wildlife species on the African continent, with millions of tourists visiting the continent for that exact purpose. Because of this, the mere presence of Leopards on a property can be a significant drawcard for ecotourism reserves, and are often one of the most sought after species on game drives. This value is realized across numerous game reserves in South Africa and Namibia, that take on the expenses of protecting them from the onslaught of poachers, because tourists are highly motivated to visit reserves with abundant populations of Leopards. This is despite them being much harder to spot on safari than other large carnivores such as lions, spotted hyenas or wild dogs.

Trophy hunting of lions have many benefits and drawbacks, depending on how it is implemented, and the overall land use practices on a particular landscape. When managed perfectly, lion hunting can generate significant revenue, while ensuring that the overall population either continues to grow, or is unaffected by hunting. There are instances where too many leopards are take out of an area, and this can have a negative impact on populations. This is especially true when permits are focused in one geographic area and targeted individuals are in their prime, territorial, reproductively active.

Cultural Value: Where ever leopards have roams across their historical range, they have always been held in high regard, though often feared, as they can be one of the most dangerous carnivores to rural human populations across the globe. This may be in part because they naturally include primates in their diet across most of their range, and humans can be mistaken for their usual prey.

The Leopard is often regarded as the most graceful and elegant of all the African cats. It is revered as a totem animal among the Zulu people, who call the leopard Ingwe. For them, the leopard symbolizes all that is noble, courageous and honorable. Leopard skins are used in ceremonial wear by Zulu royalty. In West Africa the leopard is a symbol of wisdom, and leopard images are frequently carved by Ife and Benin sculptors.

Throughout all of human history, people have coexisted with leoaprds over a large portion of the globe, but as agriculture spread across the globe, lions often came into direct conflict with our interests, and has resulted in their extermination from many parts of the world. Faunus aims to help restore some of these populations, especially in areas where they have been missing from ecosystems for hundreds, or even thousands of years.

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