Plains Zebra

Equus quagga

General Description

Scientific Name: Equus quagga

Subspecies: 7 Subspecies

Maneless Zebra (Equus quagga borensis)
Grant's Zebra (Equus quagga boehmi)
Crawshay's Zebra (Equus quagga crawshayi)
Chapman's Zebra (Equus quagga chapmani)
Burchell's Zebra (Equus quagga burchellii)
Quagga (Equus quagga quagga) Extinct
Selous Zebra (Equus quagga selousi)

Status: Near Threatened (Decreasing)

Total Estimated Populations: 150,000-250,000

Population in Assessed Areas: 3,587

Diet: Herbivore - Mostly Grasses, some browse

Male Size: 220-322 kgs

Female Size: 175-250 kg

Trophy Size: N/A

Generation Length: 10 years

Reproductive Season: Year Round

Time of Activity: Diurnal

Description: The plains zebra stands at 127–140 cm (50–55 in) with a head-body length of 217–246 cm (85–97 in) and a tail length of 47–56.5 cm (18.5–22.2 in). Males weigh 220–322 kg (485–710 lb) while females weigh 175–250 kg (386–551 lb). The species is intermediate in size between the larger Grévy's zebra and the smaller mountain zebra. It is dumpy bodied with relatively short legs and a skull with a convex forehead and a somewhat concave nose profile. The neck is thicker in males than in females. The ears are upright and have rounded tips. They are shorter than in the mountain zebra and narrower than in Grévy's zebra. As with all wild equids, the plains zebra has an erect mane along the neck and a tuft of hair at the end of the tail.

Like all zebras, they are boldly striped in black and white and no two animals exactly alike. Compared to other species, the plains zebra has broader stripes. The stripes are vertical on the fore part of the body, and tend towards the horizontal on the hindquarters. Northern zebra populations have narrower and more defined striping; southern populations have varied but lesser amounts of striping on the under parts, the legs and the hindquarters. Southern populations also have brown "shadow" stripes between the black and white coloring. These are absent or poorly expressed in northern zebras. The natal coat of a foal is brown and white and the brown darkens with age.

Various coat abnormalities have been documented in plains zebras. Melanistic zebras have high concentrations of dark stripes on the torso but low concentrations on the legs. "Spotted" individuals display interruptions in black striping patterns. There have even been morphs with white spots on dark backgrounds. Striping abnormalities have been linked to inbreeding. Albino zebras have been recorded in the forests of Mount Kenya, with the dark stripes being blonde. The quagga had brown and white stripes on the head and neck, brown upper parts and a white belly, tail and legs.

Ecology: The plains zebra is a savannah animal that prefers open woodland or broken bushveld with ample stands of various vigorous, medium height grasses in both sweetveld and mixedveld. Plains zebra adapt readily to a large range of marginal habitats including the Thicket Biome up to the snow-line and temperate tall grasslands, but family groups tend to be much smaller in these habitats. Groups are also found in the marginal, eastern granite sandveld of the Kruger National Park in mixedveld with grass stands of up to 150 cm. Plains zebra do not usually flourish in arid environments, forests and sourveld habitats and avoid steep and rocky slopes. But, Faunus has identified several growing natural populations in the Namib desert, in a direr habitat than they're usually associated with.

The zebra is classed as a non-selective, bulk feeder of intermediate to tall grass of 6-35

cm. The diet consists of 92% grass and 8% dicot forbs and includes large volumes of

coarse fodder such as grass stems and plumes. The most preferred grasses are red

grass Themeda triandra, couch grass Cynodon dactylon, turpentine grass Cymbopogon

plurinodes, assegai grass Heteropogon contortus, common bristle grasses of the Setaria

sp, bottlebrush Enneapogon scoparius and finger grass Digitaria eriantha. Young leaves and growth ends of woody plants are nibbled sporadically but contribute little to the overall dietary intake. Underground bulbs and roots are dug up with the forefeet during droughts.

Seasonal movement in search of nutritious grazing with a high crude protein content often

results in migration and is a critical form of survival behavior. Zebra migrations often follow blue wildebeest treks, usually induced by veld fires that give rise to new growth. Zebra are generally the first animal species to occupy burnt veld. Zebra are in direct competition with Red Hartebeests as they both occupy the same feeding niche. Stocking with too many short grass grazers such as Springbok, Wildebeest and Blesbok can be detrimental, as they shorten the grass layer and make it unsuitable. They frequently seek mineral-rich ground licks and will take supplementary artificial licks, but caution should be exercised as their high levels of urea can kill a zebra.

Zebra have little impact on veld condition compared to most other grazing animals. This

is because, unlike most antelope, the zebra has a fully operational upper set of incisors

that can bite off plant material more efficiently at ground level without uprooting the plant.

Antelope are more destructive as they lack upper incisors and usually rip out the entire

plant. While most antelope drink during the cooler daylight hours, plains zebra drink during the hotter midday hours. The availability of clean, daily drinking water is essential. They dig

seepage pools on the sides of pools if the water source is muddy or dirty. In times of

drought seepage pools are dug in dry river beds. Plains zebra are seldom found further

than 8 km from a water source.

Behavior: Plains zebra are gregarious and form large herds of multiple family group of 4-12 individuals. These herds move through the home range as a temporary unit, similar to Cape Buffalo. In thicker woodland or bushveld and on smaller land-units, the larger aggregations are lost and independent family groups are scattered across the habitat. A family structure consists of a dominant stallion of 8-12 years, a dominant mare aged >8 years, 2-3 beta mares of 5-8 years, 2-5 mares of 3-5 years and several sub-adults of both sexes <3 years old. Bodily contact is frequent as they rub against each other and groom with their teeth. Young stallions leave the family group at three years and join bachelor groups that keep to the periphery of the large herds and utilize the same home range. In natural populations, bachelor groups form 15% of the total animal number.

Young mares become socially mature at 2.5 years and some are lured away from the family group by opportunistic non-dominant stallions. Often these mares do not return to their mother group but establish new families of their own. When a stallion associated with a family group loses its dominance, it is replaced by a new stallion that forcefully expels the young males that are not his own progeny. Lactating mares stop suckling their foals and immediately recommence oestrous for the new stallion. Foals that continue to suckle are often kicked to death by the stallion. Many unweaned foals too weak to survive either starve to death or fall prey to predators.

Plains zebra are migratory by nature and move between food and water sources. Hence, home ranges are large, unstable and temporary, varying in size from 10,000-26,000 ha. The size can be reduced to 2 500 ha by a fire management program that provides optimal feeding throughout the year. In the Eastern Cape Valley Bushveld that has an annual rainfall of >400 mm, plains zebra thrive on game farms as small as 800 ha. Large aggregations of multiple family groups can form herds of over a thousand. During migrations, individuals of family groups follow each other in single files which then follow other family columns. When this happens, long dust lines of moving plains zebra can be seen from a distance, especially from an aircraft. The annual migration of both Chapman’s plains zebra and blue wildebeest in the Kruger National Park covers a round trip distance of approximately 420 km. Dominant stallions do not display territorial behavior but rather associate with a family group and accompanies their movements.

Reproduction: Mating occurs throughout the year. The gestation period is 12.5 months and 85% of the foals are born between October and March. This wide spread of the birthing period results in high foal mortalities in areas where there are large predators. Mares do not go into isolation for birth but remain within the group. After 50-60 minutes the foal has gained sufficient strength to follow its mother and moves with the group. The mother

does not eat the afterbirth. Twins are unknown and mares with newborn foals are aggressive. Foals begin to graze when they are seven days old and, until an age of 3.5 months, eat the dung of adults to build up the digestive microbes in the rumen. They wean at 9-14 months depending on the environmental conditions and the social order of the family group. Foals that are separated from their mothers run the risk of being kicked to death by older mares.

Stallions reach sexual maturity at three years, social maturity after five and physical dominance after eight. They begin to mate with young breakaway mares at an age of five but only mate with superior family mares after they are eight years old. Mares become sexually mature at 16-20 months and mate from an age of 2.5 years to the end of their lifespan. A dominant stallion will mate successfully with up to six mares in the group and becomes infertile and post mature after 12 years.

Conservation Analysis

Map of Plains Zebra Range

Current & Historic range: Plains Zebra range from South Sudan and southern Ethiopia, east of the Nile River, to southern Angola and northern Namibia and northern South Africa (formerly ranging south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers to the Cape). They are now extinct in two countries in which they formerly occurred: Burundi and Lesotho, and are likely to be extinct in Somalia. The six morphologically defined subspecies are distributed as follows:

E. q. crawshaii (Crawshay’s Zebra) occurs in Zambia, east of the Luangwa River, Malawi, south-eastern Tanzania from Lake Rukwa east to Mahungoi, and Mozambique as far south as the Gorongoza district
E. q. borensis ranges in north-west Kenya, from Guas ngishu and Lake Baringo, to the Karamoja district of Uganda and south-east South Sudan, east of the Nile River to the northern limit of the species at 32°N
E. q. boehmi (Grant’s Zebra or Boehm's Zebra) is found in Zambia, west of the Luangwa River, west to Kariba, Shaba Province of DR Congo north to Kibanzao Plateau; Tanzania north from Nyangaui and Kibwezi into south-west Uganda, south-west Kenya as far as Sotik, and east Kenya, east of the Rift Valley, into southern Ethiopia and perhaps to the Juba River in Somalia.
E. q. chapmani (Chapman's Zebra) ranges from north-east South Africa, from about 24°S, 31°E, north to Zimbabwe, west into Botswana at about 19°S, 24°E, the Caprivi Strip in Namibia, and southeastern Angola (east of the Cubango river)
E. q. burchellii (Burchell's Zebra) formerly occurred north of the Vaal/Orange Rivers, extending north-west via southern Botswana to Etosha National Park and the Kaokoveld, south-east to KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland, and in southwestern Angola. It is now extinct in the middle of its range. E. b. antiquorum is now included in this subspecies
E. q. quagga (Quagga) occurred in the former Cape Province, south of the Orange and Vaal Rivers and west of the Drakensberg. Now extinct.

Current & Historic Populations: Plains Zebra are considered common and widespread across Africa, but there has been a population decline in 10 out of the 17 range states since the 1992 and 2002 IUCN Red List assessments. In many countries Plains Zebra are only found in protected areas, with little or no individuals outside them. Lack of surveys outside protected areas makes assessing trends and population sizes difficult across most of the species’ range.Total population across the species’ range is estimated at over 500,000 animals; if 30% to 50% of animals are mature (based on maturity rates in other zebra species) this gives a population of 150,000 to 250,000 mature individuals.

Total numbers were estimated at about 660,000 in 2002 (Hack et al. 2002), roughly the same as they were in 1992 (671,000 animals; Duncan and Gakahu 1992). This represents a population reduction of 24% since 2002, and a 25% decline since 1992 (about 2.5 generations, as generation length is about 10 years). It is very likely that 3 generations ago (in 1985) that the population was similar in size to numbers given in 1992, so it is a fair assumption that the population reduction has occurred within the last 3 generations. The exact number of Plains Zebra is unknown due to different survey methods applied across their range, and many areas having no recent survey data. This makes comparison of survey data problematic. In the country specific data below confidence intervals or other range descriptors are given when available, but most accounts do not provide this information. However when comparing data over the past few generations any error in calculating total population size is likely to have remained constant, as intensity and accuracy of surveys are unlikely to have greatly improved.

Plains Zebra Population Data

Country	Population Estimate	Population Status	Last Assessed
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Uganda
Tanzania
South Sudan
Rwanda
Nigeria
Mozambique
Malawi
Kenya
Gabon
Equatorial Guinea
Democratic Republic of Congo
Central African Republic
Cameroon
Angola
South Africa

*Further data on Plains Zebra populations and harvest numbers outside of South Africa and Namibia are largely incomplete, and hence it has not been evaluated by us. It is our goal to expand into other African Nations soon, so please do be patient with us.

Overall, populations in Ethiopia, Malawi, and South Africa appear stable; they are possibly stable in Angola (they were considered likely extinct here in the 2002 assessment); in Mozambique they are stable or increasing; in Namibia and Swaziland populations are increasing; but in Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe populations are declining (Table 1). Of particular concern is that decline is being seen in Kenya and Tanzania, where the species is most numerous. However the world's largest single Plains Zebra population in Serengeti National Park appears stable.

Threats to Species Survival: While equid meat is often not a preferred choice, Plains Zebra are threatened by illegal hunting through much of their range, especially when they move out of protected areas. Hunting for their skins occurs, particularly in East Africa as these subspecies do not have the shadow stripe present in southern African subspecies. That being said, many Southern African nations use hunting as a mechanism for protecting the species, and has positivly impacted populations in both South Africa and Namibia. Fencing serves as a major threat to migration corridors, although Plains Zebras have been shown to re-establish migration routes if barriers are removed, even if they are blocked for over 30 years. But when they are blocked, they can result in drapitic die offs, where thousands of animals die in a single year, such as what happened in Botswana in the 1950's.

Recommended Conservation Actions:

Increased protection from development and poaching in populations close to human settlements, as well as further economic incentives to not overharvest a particular species.
A development of a meta-population plan for the Cape subspecies, to ensure that genetic diversity is maintained, and to hopefully connect existing populations on private land.
Create additional incentives for landowners to protect and expand populations in their historic range, whilst ensuring that harvest rates do not exceed growth rates.
Study the impact of drought on population numbers, as well as the impact of fencing created by an expanding livestock industry.
Increase surveying capabilities of most of it's populations, especially outside of protected areas, where much about the status of this species is unknown.

Economic & Cultural Analysis

Ecotourism Value: Very High

Hunting Value: High

Meat Value: Moderate

Average Trophy Value: $800-1,800USD

Meat Yield per Animal: 80-150 kg

Economic Value/Impacts: In both Namibia and South Africa, Plains Zebra are popular attractions for ecotourism clients, with their presence on a reserve being a major drawcard for international visitors. This has motivated many reserves to return the species to fences areas of their historic range. They are also incredibly valuable to the hunting industry, with hunters pursing the species for their striking coats, which are often tanned as a full skin rug. They have incredible eyesight and hearing, making them a challenging quarry, even for the most experienced of hunters. Operators will often sell the meat into the legal market, where it is growing in popularity.

Cultural Value: Zebra has a deep meaning in shamanism, African tribal traditions, psychological sciences and many other ancient religions. Even today a zebra icon is used to denote the symbolic meaning of it. A zebra animal symbol represents community, freedom, balance, and individualism.

Though it might seem strange to some, the meat of zebra is of high quality being relatively low in fat compared to beef, but higher in fat (which is often yellow) than some antelope species. Most African cultures do not have the same Taboos around the consumption of equine meat, hence is often relished as a bush-meat product.

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