Spotted Hyena

Crocuta crocuta

General Description

Scientific Name: Crocuta crocuta

Subspecies: No Subspecies

Status: Least Concern (decreasing)

Population Estimate: 27,000-47,000

Population in Assessed Areas: 10-20

Diet: Obligate Carnivore

Male Size: 40-67 Kgs

Female Size: 42-70 Kgs

Trophy Size: N/a

Generation Length: 5.7 years

Reproductive Season: Year Round

Time of Activity: Diurnal/semi-nocturnal

Description: The spotted hyena is the largest extant member of the Hyaenidae, with adults measure 95–165.8 cm in length, and have a shoulder height of 70–91.5 cm. Males tend to be a bit smaller than females, ranging between 40-67 kg's, whilst females are usually between 42-70 kg's. Exceptionally large weights of 81.7 kg (180 lb) and 90 kg (200 lb) are known, with populations from southern Africa tending to be larger than their east & west African cousins.

Fur colour varies greatly and changes with age. Unlike the striped and brown hyena, spotted hyena consists of spots rather than stripes and is shorter, and lacks the well defined spinal mane. The base colour generally is a greyish-brown or yellowish-grey with a irregular pattern of roundish spots is superimposed on the back and hind quarters. The spots, which are of variable distinction, may be reddish, deep brown or almost blackish. The spots vary in size, but are usually around 20 mm in diameter. A set of five, pale and barely distinct bands replace the spots on the back and sides of the neck. A broad, medial band is present on the back of the neck, and is lengthened into a forward facing crest. The crest is mostly reddish-brown in colour. The crown and upper part of the face is brownish, save for a white band above both eyes. The fur is relatively sparse and consists of two hair types. First is the moderately fine underfur that's around 15–20 mm long, second are the long, stout bristle hairs that are 30–40 mm long.

The spotted hyena has a strong and well-developed front end and relatively smaller hindquarters. The rump is rounded rather than angular, which prevents attackers coming from behind from getting a firm grip on it. The head is wide and flat with a blunt muzzle and broad rhinarium. In contrast to the striped hyena, the ears of the spotted hyena are rounded rather than pointed. Each foot has four digits, which are webbed and have short, stout and blunt claws. The paw-pads are broad and flat, with the whole undersurface of the foot around them being naked. The tail is relatively short, being 300–350 mm (12–14 in) long, and resembles a pompom in appearance. Unusually among hyaenids, and mammals in general, the female spotted hyena is considerably larger than the male. Both sexes have a pair of anal glands which open into the rectum just inside the anal opening. These glands produce a white, creamy secretion that's very strong smelling, of boiling cheap soap or burning, and can be detected several metres downwind. The spotted hyena has a proportionately large heart, weighing close to 1% of its body weight, thus giving it great endurance in long chases. In contrast, a lion's heart makes up only 0.45–0.57 percent of its body weight.

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Ecology: The spotted hyena is the most carnivorous and predatory extant hyena. One of the earliest studies to demonstrate their hunting abilities was done by Hans Kruuk, an African wildlife ecologist, where his 7-year study of hyena populations showed that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions, and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of Africa.

Blue Wildebeest are the most common ungulate prey item in both Ngorongoro and the Serengeti, with plains zebra and Thomson's gazelles, coming close behind. Cape buffalo are rarely attacked due to habitat preference differences, though adult bulls have are taken on occasion. In Kruger National Park, blue wildebeest, cape buffalo, plains zebra, greater kudu and impala are the spotted hyena's most important prey, while giraffe, impala, wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby Timbavati area. Springbok and kudu are the main prey in Namibia's Etosha National Park, and springbok in the Namib. In the southern Kalahari, gemsbok, common eland, lechwe, waterbuck, wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey. In Chobe, their prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala. In Kenya's Masai Mara, 80% of the their diet consists of topi and Thomson's gazelle, save for during the 4 months when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area. Bushbuck, suni and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the Aberdare Mountains, while Grant's gazelle, gerenuk, sheep goats and cattle are likely preyed upon in northern Kenya.

Spotted hyenas are adaptable hunters, not preferring to prey on any species. Only African buffalo and giraffe are significantly avoided. Spotted hyenas prefer prey with a body mass range of 56–182 kg (123–401 lb), with a mode of 102 kg (225 lb). When hunting medium to large sized prey, spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal; young animals are frequently targeted, as are old ones, though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras, due to their aggressive anti-predator behaviors. Small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth, while large prey is eaten alive.

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Predatory Competition: Where spotted hyenas and Lions share habitat, the two species occupy the same ecological niche, and hence directly compete with one another. In some cases, the dietary overlap can be as high as 68.8%. Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas, unless they are on a kill or are being harassed by them. There exists a common misconception that hyenas steal kills from lions, but most often it is the other way around, and lions will readily steal the kills of spotted hyenas. In the Ngorongoro Crater, it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas. Lions are quick to follow the calls of hyenas feeding. When confronted on a kill by lions, spotted hyenas will either leave or wait at a distance of 30–100m until the lions have finished eating. In some cases, spotted hyenas are bold enough to feed alongside lions, and may occasionally force lions off a kill. This mostly occurs during the nighttime, when hyenas are bolder. Spotted hyenas usually prevail against groups of lionesses unaccompanied by males if they outnumber them 4:1. In some instances they were seen to have taken on and routed two pride males while outnumbering them 5:1.

They may act aggressively toward one another even when there is no food at stake. Lions may charge at hyenas and maul them for no apparent reason; one male lion was filmed killing two hyenas on separate occasions without eating them, and lion predation can account for up to 71% of hyena deaths in Etosha. Spotted hyenas have adapted to this pressure by frequently mobbing lions which enter their territories. Experiments on captive spotted hyenas revealed that specimens with no prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them, but will react fearfully to the scent.

Although cheetahs and leopards target on smaller prey, spotted hyena will steal their kills when the opportunity presents itself. Cheetahs are usually easily intimidated by hyenas, and put up little resistance, while leopards, particularly males, may stand up to hyenas. There are records of some male leopards preying on hyenas. Hyenas are nonetheless dangerous opponents for leopards; there is at least one record of a young adult male leopard dying from a sepsis infection caused by wounds inflicted by a spotted hyena.

Spotted hyenas will follow packs of African wild dogs to appropriate their kills. They inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find. When approaching wild dogs at a kill, solitary hyenas will approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed, though they may be mobbed by the dogs in the attempt. When in groups, spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating dog kills, though the dog's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage. Although wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas, on the whole, the relationship between the two species is a one sided benefit for the hyenas, with wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations

Behavior: Spotted hyenas are social animals that live in large clans, consisting of at most 80 individuals. In the Serengeti, where prey is migratory, clans are smaller than those in the Ngorongoro Crater, where prey is sedentary. Spotted hyena clans are more compact and unified than wolf packs, but are not as closely knit as those of African wild dogs.

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Females usually dominate males, including in cases where low-ranking females generally dominate over high-ranking males, but can also occasionally co-dominate with a male. Rarely, a clan can be led by a male rather than a female. Cubs take the rank directly below their mothers at birth. So when the matriarch passes away, their youngest female cub will take over as matriarch. It is typical for females to remain with their natal clan, thus large clans usually contain several matrilines, whereas males typically disperse from their natal clan at the age of 2½ years. When a male co-dominates with a female or is otherwise able to lead, this is because the male was born to the matriarch of the clan and has taken the rank directly below his mother.

The clan is a fission–fusion society, in which clan-members do not often remain together, but may forage in small groups. High-ranking hyenas maintain their position through aggression directed against lower-ranking clan-members. Spotted hyena hierarchy is nepotistic; the offspring of dominant females automatically outrank adult females subordinate to their mother. However, rank in spotted hyena cubs is greatly dependent on the presence of the mother; low-ranking adults may act aggressively toward higher-ranking cubs when the mother is absent. Although individual spotted hyenas only care for their own young, and males take no part in raising their young, cubs are able to identify relatives as distantly related as great-aunts. Also, males associate more closely with their own daughters rather than unrelated cubs, and the latter favor their fathers by acting less aggressively toward them.

Reproduction: The spotted hyena is a non-seasonal breeder, though a birth peak does occur during the wet season. Females are polyestrous, with an estrus period lasting two weeks. Like many feliform species, the spotted hyena is promiscuous, and no enduring pair bonds are formed. Members of both sexes may copulate with several mates over the course of several years.[54] Males will show submissive behaviour when approaching females in heat, even if the male outweighs his partner. Females usually favour younger males born or joined into the clan after they were born. Older females show a similar preference, with the addition of preferring males with whom they have had long and friendly prior relationships.[76] Passive males tend to have greater success in courting females than aggressive ones.

The gestation period tends to vary greatly, but the average length is 110 days. In the final stages of pregnancy, dominant females provide their developing offspring with higher androgen levels than lower-ranking mothers do. The higher androgen levels are thought to be responsible for the extreme masculinization of female behavior and morphology. This renders the cubs of dominant females more aggressive and sexually active than cubs of lower ranking ones. High ranking male cubs will attempt to mount females earlier than lower ranking males. The average litter consists of two cubs, with three occasionally being reported. Males take no part in the raising of young. Giving birth is difficult for female hyenas, as the females give birth through their narrow clitoris, and spotted hyena cubs are the largest carnivoran young relative to their mothers' weight.

Cubs are born with soft, dark brown hair, and weigh 1.5 kg on average. Unique among carnivorous mammals, they're also born with their eyes open and with semi-formed canines and incisors. Also, cubs will attack each other shortly after birth, particularly in same sexed litters, sometimes resulting in the death of weaker cubs. Siblicide kills an estimated 25% of all hyenas in their first month. Male cubs which survive grow faster and are likelier to achieve reproductive dominance, while female survivors eliminate rivals for dominance in their natal clan. Cubs will nurse from their mother for 12–16 months, though they can process solid food as early as three months. Mothers do not regurgitate food for their young. Females are protective of their cubs, and will not tolerate other adults, particularly males, approaching them. Spotted hyenas exhibit adult behaviors early in life; cubs have been observed to ritually sniff each other and mark their living space before the age of one month. Within ten days of birth, they are able to move at considerable speed. Cubs begin to lose the black coat and develop the spotted, lighter colored pelage of the adults at 2–3 months. They begin to exhibit hunting behaviors at the age of eight months, and will begin fully participating in group hunts after their first year. Spotted hyenas reach sexual maturity at the age of three years.

Conservation Analysis

Current & Historic range: Historically widespread across Africa, as well as across Europe and northern Asia in prehistoric times. Today, whilst they're still widespread, they've much less common, especially their North African and Southern African range. Their current distribution is patchy, especially in West and Central Africa, with populations often concentrated in protected areas. More continuous distributions persist over large areas of Chad, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, Angola, Namibia, and parts of South Africa. Spotted Hyaenas are still widespread in Djibouti, and the same can be said for Gambia. Long-term studies on Spotted Hyaenas and recent surveys have confirmed their presence in Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, The Republic of Congo, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Historical pest control initiatives in South Africa have greatly reduced their density and range, though they do seem to be recovering, and recolonizing parts of their former range in the eastern cape.

Map of Spotted Hyena Distribution

Current & Historic Populations: Spotted Hyenas were likely one of the most common large carnivore species across sub-Saharan Africa, being incredibly adaptable, and occurring at large densities because of their pack behavior Viable populations exist in a number of countries and a tentative estimate of the total global population is between 27,000 and 47,000. The largest known populations occur in the Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania and Kenya (7,200-7,700 in the Tanzanian and 500-1,000 in the Kenyan) and the Kruger National Park in South Africa (1,300-3,900). Population densities vary substantially, from 0.006 individuals per km² in Namibia to 2.4 individuals per km² in the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Low population densities occur in semi-desert areas in southern Africa (0.006-0.05 individuals per km²), such as the Namib. High densities occur in savanna and some open woodlands in Tanzania and Kenya, as well as in montane forests (0.32-2.4 individuals per km²), such as Selous Game Reserve and Ngorongoro Crater. Most populations in protected areas in southern Africa and several populations in eastern Africa are considered to be stable.

There is evidence that a few populations have increased during the past years. In Eritrea, there were no confirmed records of the species until the 1990s, but since then, Spotted Hyaenas have been recorded throughout the country and the population is believed to be increasing. Similarly, in Chad, the population of the largest national park has experienced a two-fold increase during the last few years. In contrast, many populations in eastern, central and western Africa, are considered to be declining, even in protected areas, mostly due to an increase in human-wildlife conflict during which humans poison and cull Spotted Hyaenas, and due to incidental snaring. In Gabon, substantial efforts to find Spotted Hyenas revealed that single individuals from The Republic of Congo may enter Gabon from time to time, but there is no evidence of a resident population in Gabon.

Threats to Species Survival: Outside protected areas, populations are subject to persecution by humans through illegal hunting, trapping and poisoning. Such activities may sometimes occur within the boundaries of conservation areas: mortality due to wire snares set to catch wild herbivores for meat is an important cause of adult mortality in the Serengeti, where snares kill around 400 adult Spotted Hyaenas each year and are responsible for more than half of all adult mortality. Since the mid-1970s, unregulated bush meat hunting rapidly expanded, as more people have moved within walking distance of the boundaries of protected areas such as in the north and west of the Serengeti. Entire clans of Spotted Hyaenas may be killed by poisoning , and many individuals are killed when hit by vehicles. Populations within South Africa and Namibia are considered stable, and likely increasing in many areas as they reclaim parts of their historic range. In these areas, habitat destruction and reductions in wild prey populations are a major threat. The numbers killed by licensed sport hunters are probably small, likely because hey aren't as well respected as a quarry as other large carnivores. It is also killed for food, medicine and witchcraft. A further threat is posed by the decline in densities of wildlife species consumed by Spotted Hyaenas due to habitat loss caused by increased human settlement, overgrazing by livestock, and unsustainable bush meat hunting by humans.

Recommended Conservation Actions:

Further resource and manage protected areas where Spotted Hyenas still exits exist.
Increase the access to funding and the effectiveness of anti-poaching techniques across Southern Africa, to make Spotted Hyenas protection as affordable as possible.
Encourage the implementation of economic incentives that allow landowners to profit off the presence of healthy Spotted Hyena populations, whether that be through hunting or ecotourism.
Investigate how trophy hunting and ecotourism can be implemented without having negative impacts on Hyena populations, and help implement this over a large part of their range.
Improve survey methods to get accurate population data, such as implementing long-term monitoring programs.

Economic & Cultural Analysis

Ecotourism Value: High

Hunting Value: High

Meat Value: Low

Average Trophy Value: $1,000-5,000 USD

Meat Yield per Animal: n/a

Economic Value/Impacts: The Spotted Hyena presents value to the ecotourism industry across their range, but their value to local communities varies greatly, from being a semi-tamed pet, to being treated like vermin in other areas.

Though a commonly sought after animal on safari, they are usually outshone by other more iconic animals like lions, leopards and cheetahs. This value is realized across numerous game reserves in South Africa and Namibia, that take on the expenses of protecting them from the onslaught of poachers, because tourists are motivated to visit reserves with abundant populations of carnivores, including spotted.

Hunting of Spotted Hyenas is far less common than other carnivore species, as it is not usually a target quarry. but they are hunted where they are still relatively widespread and abundant.

Cultural Value: In their prehistoric Eurasian range, there are several depictions of Spotted Hyenas in Caves, such as those in Lascaux and Chauvet Caves, though they are far less common than Cave Bears and Cave Lions. This was likely because they were less appealing to paint, and less of a competitor than the other two predators.

In Africa, the spotted hyena is usually portrayed as an abnormal and ambivalent animal, considered to be sly, brutish, necrophagous and dangerous. It further embodies physical power, excessiveness, ugliness, stupidity, as well as sacredness. Spotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions, depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate. Some of these negative connotations around hyena behavior has caused conservation issues, where they are regularly poisoned by locals, and disregarded as an important predator in the ecosystem by researchers in some instances.